Effect of Pile Cap Geometry on Soil Arching Behavior in GRPS Embankments: A Comparative Study

Subject Areas : Structural Engineering

mohammad  amir mirzaei ¹ (Faculty of Engineering, University of Science and Culture, Tehran, Iran)
Monireh  Karimian Mobarakeh ² (Faculty of Civil Engineering, Politecnico di Torino, Turin, Italy)
Arif  Khan ³ (Faculty of Civil Engineering, Southwest Jiaotong University, China)
Adriko  norman burua ⁴ (Faculty of Civil Engineering, Southwest Jiaotong University, China)
rashid  hajivand dastgerdi ⁵ (AGH University of Science and Technology, Krakow, Poland)

Received: 2024-02-24 Accepted : 2024-05-26 Published : 2024-06-19

Keywords: Geosynthetic-Reinforced Pile-Supported Embankments (GRPS), Pile head shapes, Soil arching, Settlement,

Abstract :

This comprehensive study in geotechnical engineering presents valuable insights and advancements in the field of Geosynthetic-Reinforced Pile-Supported Embankments (GRPS). The study focuses on the analysis of pile caps in GRPS using three-dimensional finite element modeling, specifically employing PLAXIS-3D software. The research investigates the effects of different pile head shapes on soil arching, settlement, and stress distribution, emphasizing the significance of pile head selection for enhancing soil arching and reducing ground settlement. The study recommends larger pile heads with flattened top surfaces, as demonstrated in sections 4 and 5, as optimal choices for pile head design in GRPS projects. The proposed analytical model captures the time-dependent settlement behavior of subsoils, but a slight underestimation of settlement after embankment construction suggests the need for further consideration of factors like pile settlement and bottom sandy silt settlement. Future research should refine the analytical model to improve settlement predictions by incorporating these factors. Additionally, the study highlights the importance of investigating GRPS embankments with floating piles, complex construction processes, water effects on soil arching, and embankment performance. It is noted that earthquake loading was not specifically addressed, indicating the need for comprehensive research in this area. Overall, this study contributes to the knowledge of GRPS embankments and provides recommendations for design, construction, and future research directions.

References:

1. Mitchell, J.K. State of the Art–Soil Improvement. In Proceedings of the Proceedings of the 10th ICSMFE; 1981; Vol. 4, pp. 509–565.
2. Magnan, J.-P. Methods to Reduce the Settlement of Embankments on Soft Clay: A Review. In Proceedings of the Vertical and Horizontal Deformations of Foundations and Embankments; ASCE, 1994; pp. 77–91.
3. Shen, S.-L.; Chai, J.-C.; Hong, Z.-S.; Cai, F.-X. Analysis of Field Performance of Embankments on Soft Clay Deposit with and without PVD-Improvement. Geotext. Geomembranes 2005, 23, 463–485.
4. Hewlett, W.J.; Randolph, M.F. Analysis of Piled Embankments. In Proceedings of the International journal of rock mechanics and mining sciences and geomechanics abstracts; Elsevier Science, 1988; Vol. 25, pp. 297–298.
5. HANJie, A.K. Case Studies of Geogrid-Reinforced and Pile-Supported Earth Structures on Weak Foundation Soils. In Proceedings of the ASCE. Proceedings of International Deep Foundation Congress. Orlando: ASCE; 2002; pp. 668–679.
6. Pham, H.T. V; Suleiman, M.T.; White, D.J. Numerical Analysis of Geosynthetic-Rammed Aggregate Pier Supported Embankments. In Geotechnical engineering for transportation projects; 2004; pp. 657–664.
7. Huang, J.; Han, J.; Oztoprak, S. Coupled Mechanical and Hydraulic Modeling of Geosynthetic-Reinforced Column-Supported Embankments. J. Geotech. Geoenvironmental Eng. 2009, 135, 1011–1021.
8. Deb, K.; Basudhar, P.K.; Chandra, S. Generalized Model for Geosynthetic-Reinforced Granular Fill-Soft Soil with Stone Columns. Int. J. Geomech. 2007, 7, 266–276.
9. Huang, J.; Han, J. 3D Coupled Mechanical and Hydraulic Modeling of a Geosynthetic-Reinforced Deep Mixed Column-Supported Embankment. Geotext. Geomembranes 2009, 27, 272–280.
10. Jenck, O.; Dias, D.; Kastner, R. Three-Dimensional Numerical Modeling of a Piled Embankment. Int. J. Geomech. 2009, 9, 102–112.
11. Han, J.; Bhandari, A.; Wang, F. DEM Analysis of Stresses and Deformations of Geogrid-Reinforced Embankments over Piles. Int. J. Geomech. 2012, 12, 340–350.
12. Rowe, R.K.; Liu, K.-W. Three-Dimensional Finite Element Modelling of a Full-Scale Geosynthetic-Reinforced, Pile-Supported Embankment. Can. Geotech. J. 2015, 52, 2041–2054.
13. Burtin, P.; Racinais, J. Embankment on Soft Soil Reinforced by CMC Semi-Rigid Inclusions for the High-Speed Railway SEA. Procedia Eng. 2016, 143, 355–362.
14. Mangraviti, V. Displacement-Based Design of Geosynthetic-Reinforced Pile-Supported Embankments to Increase Sustainability. In Civil and Environmental Engineering for the Sustainable Development Goals: Emerging Issues; Springer International Publishing Cham, 2022; pp. 83–96.
15. Van Eekelen, S.J.M.; Han, J. Geosynthetic-Reinforced Pile-Supported Embankments: State of the Art. Geosynth. Int. 2020, 27, 112–141.
16. Liu, H.L.; Ng, C.W.W.; Fei, K. Performance of a Geogrid-Reinforced and Pile-Supported Highway Embankment over Soft Clay: Case Study. J. Geotech. Geoenvironmental Eng. 2007, 133, 1483–1493.
17. Chen, R.P.; Chen, Y.M.; Han, J.; Xu, Z.Z. A Theoretical Solution for Pile-Supported Embankments on Soft Soils under One-Dimensional Compression. Can. Geotech. J. 2008, 45, 611–623.
18. Miao, L.; Wang, F.; Lv, W. A Simplified Calculation Method for Stress Concentration Ratio of Composite Foundation with Rigid Piles. KSCE J. Civ. Eng. 2018, 22, 3263–3270.
19. King, D.J.; Bouazza, A.; Gniel, J.R.; Rowe, R.K.; Bui, H.H. Load-Transfer Platform Behaviour in Embankments Supported on Semi-Rigid Columns: Implications of the Ground Reaction Curve. Can. Geotech. J. 2017, 54, 1158–1175.
20. Khansari, A.; Vollmert, L. Load Transfer and Deformation of Geogrid-Reinforced Piled Embankments: Field Measurement. Geosynth. Int. 2020, 27, 332–341.
21. Van Eekelen, S.J.M.; Bezuijen, A.; Van Tol, A.F. An Analytical Model for Arching in Piled Embankments. Geotext. Geomembranes 2013, 39, 78–102.
22. Chen, R.-P.; Liu, Q.-W.; Wang, H.-L.; Liu, Y.; Ma, Q.-L. Performance of Geosynthetic-Reinforced Pile-Supported Embankment on Soft Marine Deposit. Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng. Eng. 2021, 174, 627–644.
23. Low, B.K.; Tang, S.K.; Choa, V. Arching in Piled Embankments. J. Geotech. Eng. 1994, 120, 1917–1938.
24. Rui, R.; van Tol, F.; Xia, X.-L.; van Eekelen, S.; Hu, G.; Xia, Y. Evolution of Soil Arching; 2D DEM Simulations. Comput. Geotech. 2016, 73, 199–209.
25. Lai, H.-J.; Zheng, J.-J.; Zhang, R.-J.; Cui, M.-J. Classification and Characteristics of Soil Arching Structures in Pile-Supported Embankments. Comput. Geotech. 2018, 98, 153–171.
26. Wang, H.-L.; Chen, R.-P.; Liu, Q.-W.; Kang, X. Investigation on Geogrid Reinforcement and Pile Efficacy in Geosynthetic-Reinforced Pile-Supported Track-Bed. Geotext. Geomembranes 2019, 47, 755–766.
27. Wu, J.; Liao, S.-M.; Liu, M.-B. An Analytical Solution for the Arching Effect Induced by Ground Loss of Tunneling in Sand. Tunn. Undergr. Sp. Technol. 2019, 83, 175–186.
28. Wu, P.-C.; Feng, W.-Q.; Yin, J.-H. Numerical Study of Creep Effects on Settlements and Load Transfer Mechanisms of Soft Soil Improved by Deep Cement Mixed Soil Columns under Embankment Load. Geotext. Geomembranes 2020, 48, 331–348.
29. Lai, H.-J.; Zheng, J.-J.; Zhang, J.; Zhang, R.-J.; Cui, L. DEM Analysis of “Soil”-Arching within Geogrid-Reinforced and Unreinforced Pile-Supported Embankments. Comput. Geotech. 2014, 61, 13–23.
30. Van Eekelen, S.J.M.; Bezuijen, A.; Van Tol, A.F. Validation of Analytical Models for the Design of Basal Reinforced Piled Embankments. Geotext. Geomembranes 2015, 43, 56–81.
31. Rui, R.; Han, J.; Van Eekelen, S.J.M.; Wan, Y. Experimental Investigation of Soil-Arching Development in Unreinforced and Geosynthetic-Reinforced Pile-Supported Embankments. J. Geotech. Geoenvironmental Eng. 2019, 145, 4018103.
32. Chen, R.P.; Xu, Z.Z.; Chen, Y.M.; Ling, D.S.; Zhu, B. Field Tests on Pile-Supported Embankments over Soft Ground. J. Geotech. Geoenvironmental Eng. 2010, 136, 777–785.
33. Chai, J.-C.; Miura, N.; Shen, S.-L. Performance of Embankments with and without Reinforcement on Soft Subsoil. Can. Geotech. J. 2002, 39, 838–848.
34. Chai, J.; Shrestha, S.; Hino, T. Failure of an Embankment on Soil-Cement Column–Improved Clay Deposit: Investigation and Analysis. J. Geotech. Geoenvironmental Eng. 2019, 145, 5019006.
35. Lee, T.; Lee, S.H.; Lee, I.-W.; Jung, Y.-H. Quantitative Performance Evaluation of GRPE: A Full-Scale Modeling Approach. Geosynth. Int. 2020, 27, 342–347.
36. Lu, Z.G.; Ju, W.J.; Wang, H.; Zheng, J.W.; Yi, K.; Feng, Y.L.; Sun, L.W. Experimental Study on Anisotropic Characteristics of Impact Tendency and Failure Model of Hard Coal. Chinese J. Rock Mech. Eng. 2019, 38, 757–768.
37. Wu, J.T.; Ye, X.; Li, J.; Li, G.W. Field and Numerical Studies on the Performance of High Embankment Built on Soft Soil Reinforced with PHC Piles. Comput. Geotech. 2019, 107, 1–13.
38. Zhao, M.; Liu, C.; El-Korchi, T.; Song, H.; Tao, M. Performance of Geogrid-Reinforced and PTC Pile-Supported Embankment in a Highway Widening Project over Soft Soils. J. Geotech. Geoenvironmental Eng. 2019, 145, 6019014.
39. Briançon, L.; Simon, B. Pile-Supported Embankment over Soft Soil for a High-Speed Line. Geosynth. Int. 2017, 24, 293–305.
40. Van Eekelen, S.J.M.; Venmans, A.A.M.; Bezuijen, A.; Van Tol, A.F. Long Term Measurements in the Woerden Geosynthetic-Reinforced Pile-Supported Embankment. Geosynth. Int. 2020, 27, 142–156.
41. Cao, W.Z.; Zheng, J.J.; Zhang, J.; Zhang, R.J. Field Test of a Geogrid-Reinforced and Floating Pile-Supported Embankment. Geosynth. Int. 2016, 23, 348–361.
42. Zhang, C.; Jiang, G.; Liu, X.; Buzzi, O. Arching in Geogrid-Reinforced Pile-Supported Embankments over Silty Clay of Medium Compressibility: Field Data and Analytical Solution. Comput. Geotech. 2016, 77, 11–25.
43. Hosseinpour, I.; Almeida, M.S.S.; Riccio, M. Full-Scale Load Test and Finite-Element Analysis of Soft Ground Improved by Geotextile-Encased Granular Columns. Geosynth. Int. 2015, 22, 428–438.
44. Liu, H.; Kong, G.; Chu, J.; Ding, X. Grouted Gravel Column-Supported Highway Embankment over Soft Clay: Case Study. Can. Geotech. J. 2015, 52, 1725–1733.
45. Almeida, M.S.S.; Hosseinpour, I.; Riccio, M.; Alexiew, D. Behavior of Geotextile-Encased Granular Columns Supporting Test Embankment on Soft Deposit. J. Geotech. Geoenvironmental Eng. 2015, 141, 4014116.
46. Nunez, M.A.; Briançon, L.; Dias, D. Analyses of a Pile-Supported Embankment over Soft Clay: Full-Scale Experiment, Analytical and Numerical Approaches. Eng. Geol. 2013, 153, 53–67.
47. Sloan, J.A. Column-Supported Embankments: Full-Scale Tests and Design Recommendations (Doctoral Dissertation, Virginia Tech). 2011.
48. Duijnen, P.G. van; Eekelen, S.J.M. van; Stoel, A.E.C. Monitoring of a Railway Piled Embankment. In Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on Geosynthetics, Brazil; 2010; pp. 1461–1464.
49. Alexiew, D.; Moormann, C.; Jud, H. Foundation of a Coal/Coke Stockyard on Soft Soil with Geotextile Encased Columns and Horizontal Reinforcement. In Proceedings of the Proceedings of the 17th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering (Volumes 1, 2, 3 and 4); IOS Press, 2009; pp. 2236–2239.
50. Almeida, M.S.S.; Ehrlich, M.; Spotti, A.P.; Marques, M.E.S. Embankment Supported on Piles with Biaxial Geogrids. Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng. Eng. 2007, 160, 185–192.
51. Hoppe, E.J.; Hite, S.L. Performance of a Pile-Supported Embankment.; Virginia Transportation Research Council, 2006;
52. Hossain, S.; Rao, K.N. Performance Evaluation and Numerical Modeling of Embankment over Soft Clayey Soil Improved with Chemico-Pile. Transp. Res. Rec. 2006, 1952, 80–89.
53. Almeida, M.S.S.; Fagundes, D.F.; Thorel, L.; Blanc, M. Geosynthetic-Reinforced Pile-Embankments: Numerical, Analytical and Centrifuge Modelling. Geosynth. Int. 2020, 27, 301–314.
54. Reshma, B.; Rajagopal, K.; Viswanadham, B.V.S. Centrifuge Model Studies on the Settlement Response of Geosynthetic Piled Embankments. Geosynth. Int. 2020, 27, 170–181.
55. Ye, G.-B.; Wang, M.; Zhang, Z.; Han, J.; Xu, C. Geosynthetic-Reinforced Pile-Supported Embankments with Caps in a Triangular Pattern over Soft Clay. Geotext. Geomembranes 2020, 48, 52–61.
56. Khatami, H.; Deng, A.; Jaksa, M. An Experimental Study of the Active Arching Effect in Soil Using the Digital Image Correlation Technique. Comput. Geotech. 2019, 108, 183–196.
57. Noorzad, A.; Badakhshan, E.; Bouazza, A. Considering Geosynthetic-Reinforced Piled Embankments as Cemented Material Dam (CMD) Foundation. In Sustainable and Safe Dams Around the World; CRC Press, 2019; pp. 963–972 ISBN 0429319770.
58. Girout, R.; Blanc, M.; Thorel, L.; Dias, D. Geosynthetic Reinforcement of Pile-Supported Embankments. Geosynth. Int. 2018, 25, 37–49.
59. Tano, B.F.G.; Stoltz, G.; Coulibaly, S.S.; Bruhier, J.; Dias, D.; Olivier, F.; Touze-Foltz, N. Large-Scale Tests to Assess the Efficiency of a Geosynthetic Reinforcement over a Cavity. Geosynth. Int. 2018, 25, 242–258.
60. Fagundes, D.F.; Almeida, M.S.S.; Thorel, L.; Blanc, M. Load Transfer Mechanism and Deformation of Reinforced Piled Embankments. Geotext. Geomembranes 2017, 45, 1–10.
61. Miranda, M.; Da Costa, A.; Castro, J.; Sagaseta, C. Influence of Geotextile Encasement on the Behaviour of Stone Columns: Laboratory Study. Geotext. Geomembranes 2017, 45, 14–22.
62. Girout, R.; Blanc, M.; Thorel, L.; Fagundes, D.F.; Almeida, M.S.S. Arching and Deformation in a Piled Embankment: Centrifuge Tests Compared to Analytical Calculations. J. Geotech. Geoenvironmental Eng. 2016, 142, 4016069.
63. Xu, C.; Song, S.; Han, J. Scaled Model Tests on Influence Factors of Full Geosynthetic-Reinforced Pile-Supported Embankments. Geosynth. Int. 2016, 23, 140–153.
64. Xing, H.; Zhang, Z.; Liu, H.; Wei, H. Large-Scale Tests of Pile-Supported Earth Platform with and without Geogrid. Geotext. Geomembranes 2014, 42, 586–598.
65. Blanc, M.; Rault, G.; Thorel, L.; Almeida, M. Centrifuge Investigation of Load Transfer Mechanisms in a Granular Mattress above a Rigid Inclusions Network. Geotext. Geomembranes 2013, 36, 92–105.
66. Wang, L.P.; Zhang, G.A. Centrifuge Model Test Study on Pile Reinforcement Behavior of Cohesive Soil Slopes under Earthquake Conditions. Landslides 2014, 11, 213–223.
67. Yun-Min, C.; Wei-Ping, C.; Ren-Peng, C. An Experimental Investigation of Soil Arching within Basal Reinforced and Unreinforced Piled Embankments. Geotext. Geomembranes 2008, 26, 164–174.
68. Jenck, O.; Dias, D.; Kastner, R. Soft Ground Improvement by Vertical Rigid Piles Two-Dimensional Physical Modelling and Comparison with Current Design Methods. Soils Found. 2005, 45, 15–30.
69. Murugesan, S.; Rajagopal, K. Geosynthetic-Encased Stone Columns: Numerical Evaluation. Geotext. Geomembranes 2006, 24, 349–358.
70. Lo, S.R.; Zhang, R.; Mak, J. Geosynthetic-Encased Stone Columns in Soft Clay: A Numerical Study. Geotext. Geomembranes 2010, 28, 292–302.
71. Liu, H. Long-Term Lateral Displacement of Geosynthetic-Reinforced Soil Segmental Retaining Walls. Geotext. Geomembranes 2012, 32, 18–27.
72. Zheng, J.J.; Chen, B.G.; Lu, Y.E.; Abusharar, S.W.; Yin, J.H. The Performance of an Embankment on Soft Ground Reinforced with Geosynthetics and Pile Walls. Geosynth. Int. 2009, 16, 173–182.
73. Zheng, G.; Yu, X.; Zhou, H.; Wang, S.; Zhao, J.; He, X.; Yang, X. Stability Analysis of Stone Column-Supported and Geosynthetic-Reinforced Embankments on Soft Ground. Geotext. Geomembranes 2020, 48, 349–356.
74. Wijerathna, M.; Liyanapathirana, D.S. Load Transfer Mechanism in Geosynthetic Reinforced Column-Supported Embankments. Geosynth. Int. 2020, 27, 236–248.
75. Yu, Y.; Bathurst, R.J. Modelling of Geosynthetic-Reinforced Column-Supported Embankments Using 2D Full-Width Model and Modified Unit Cell Approach. Geotext. Geomembranes 2017, 45, 103–120.
76. Ariyarathne, P.; Liyanapathirana, D.S. Review of Existing Design Methods for Geosynthetic-Reinforced Pile-Supported Embankments. Soils Found. 2015, 55, 17–34.
77. Potts, V.J.; Zdravkovic, L. Finite-Element Study of Arching Behaviour in Reinforced Fills. Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng. Improv. 2010, 163, 217–229.
78. Yoo, C. Performance of Geosynthetic-Encased Stone Columns in Embankment Construction: Numerical Investigation. J. Geotech. Geoenvironmental Eng. 2010, 136, 1148–1160.
79. Han, J.; Gabr, M.A. Numerical Analysis of Geosynthetic-Reinforced and Pile-Supported Earth Platforms over Soft Soil. J. Geotech. geoenvironmental Eng. 2002, 128, 44–53.
80. Chindaprasirt, P.; Jaturapitakkul, C.; Sinsiri, T. Effect of Fly Ash Fineness on Compressive Strength and Pore Size of Blended Cement Paste. Cem. Concr. Compos. 2005, 27, 425–428.
81. Sarkar, A.; Rano, R.; Mishra, K.K.; Sinha, I.N. Particle Size Distribution Profile of Some Indian Fly Ash—a Comparative Study to Assess Their Possible Uses. Fuel Process. Technol. 2005, 86, 1221–1238.
82. Bicer, A. Effect of Fly Ash Particle Size on Thermal and Mechanical Properties of Fly Ash-Cement Composites. Therm. Sci. Eng. Prog. 2018, 8, 78–82.
83. Holtz, R.D.; Kovacs, W.D.; Sheahan, T.C. An Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering; Prentice-Hall Englewood Cliffs, 1981; Vol. 733;.
84. Liu, K.-W.; Rowe, R.K. Performance of Reinforced, DMM Column-Supported Embankment Considering Reinforcement Viscosity and Subsoil’s Decreasing Hydraulic Conductivity. Comput. Geotech. 2016, 71, 147–158.
85. Ariyarathne, P.; Liyanapathirana, D.S.; Leo, C.J. Comparison of Different Two-Dimensional Idealizations for a Geosynthetic-Reinforced Pile-Supported Embankment. Int. J. Geomech. 2013, 13, 754–768.
86. Bhasi, A.; Rajagopal, K. Numerical Study of Basal Reinforced Embankments Supported on Floating/End Bearing Piles Considering Pile–Soil Interaction. Geotext. Geomembranes 2015, 43, 524–536.
87. Borges, J.L.; Marques, D.O. Geosynthetic-Reinforced and Jet Grout Column-Supported Embankments on Soft Soils: Numerical Analysis and Parametric Study. Comput. Geotech. 2011, 38, 883–896.
88. Khabbazian, M.; Kaliakin, V.N.; Meehan, C.L. Column Supported Embankments with Geosynthetic Encased Columns: Validity of the Unit Cell Concept. Geotech. Geol. Eng. 2015, 33, 425–442.
89. Le Hello, B.; Villard, P. Embankments Reinforced by Piles and Geosynthetics—Numerical and Experimental Studies Dealing with the Transfer of Load on the Soil Embankment. Eng. Geol. 2009, 106, 78–91.
90. Pham, T.A. Analysis of Soil-Foundation-Structure Interaction to Load Transfer Mechanism in Reinforced Piled Embankments. Aust Geomech J 2019, 54, 85–100.
91. Smith, M.; Filz, G. Axisymmetric Numerical Modeling of a Unit Cell in Geosynthetic-Reinforced, Column-Supported Embankments. Geosynth. Int. 2007, 14, 13–22.
92. Tran, Q.A.; Villard, P.; Dias, D. Geosynthetic Reinforced Piled Embankment Modeling Using Discrete and Continuum Approaches. Geotext. Geomembranes 2021, 49, 243–256.
93. Pham, T.A.; Dias, D. Comparison and Evaluation of Analytical Models for the Design of Geosynthetic-Reinforced and Pile-Supported Embankments. Geotext. Geomembranes 2021, 49, 528–549.
94. Russell, D.; Pierpoint, N. An Assessment of Design Methods for Piled Embankments. Gr. Eng. 1997, 30.
95. Goughnour, R.R.; Barksdale, R.D. Performance of a Stone Column Supported Embankment. In Proceedings of the Proceedings of the First International Conference on Case Histories in Geotechnical Engineering, St. Louis, Mo; 1984; pp. 6–11.
96. Pham, T.A. Load-Deformation of Piled Embankments Considering Geosynthetic Membrane Effect and Interface Friction. Geosynth. Int. 2020, 27, 275–300.
97. Pham, T.A. Behaviour of Piled Embankment with Multi-Interaction Arching Model. Géotechnique Lett. 2020, 10, 582–588.