Interpretations of Iranian Architecture from a Synchronic Linguistics Perspective

Subject Areas : Architecture

Zahra Alebouyeh ¹ , Mohammadreza Rahimzadeh ^{2 *} , Leila Zare ³ , Behrooz Mahmoodi Bakhtiari ⁴

1 - Department of Architecture, College of Art and Architecture, West Tehran Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran.
2 - Faculty of Architecture and Urban Planning, University of Art, Tehran, Iran.
3 - Department of Architecture, College of Art and Architecture, West Tehran Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran.
4 - Department of Performing Arts and Music, College of Fine Arts, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran.

Received: 2024-08-24 Accepted : 2025-06-09 Published : 2025-07-03

Keywords: Understanding Iranian Architecture, Iranian Architectural Studies, Synchronic Linguistics, Linguistics,

Abstract :

Extensive studies on Iranian architecture have been conducted since the late Qajar period. However, many aspects remain unexplored. One of the main challenges in this field is the lack of a systematic approach to architectural analysis. Most previous research has been descriptive, focusing on the physical characteristics of buildings. Yet architecture goes beyond its physical elements; it consists of complex structures that require theoretical and conceptual analysis. As a tool for understanding architecture, the theory allows for a deeper examination of structures, meanings, and cultural transformations. Since the 1960s, linguistics has emerged as a significant architectural theory paradigm due to the renewed focus on meaning in architecture. Language and architecture are manifestations of culture—while language reflects culture, it also organizes other cultural domains. The structural similarities between language and architecture have led architects and theorists to adopt linguistic theories for "understanding architecture" and finding "design solutions." This article approaches architecture as a language and, inspired by how linguists study language through various approaches, proposes methodologies for the "understanding of architecture." It draws on Ferdinand de Saussure's classification, particularly the synchronic approach, which analyzes language at a specific moment. The scope of this research is centered on the applications of the synchronic approach in understanding Iranian architecture. Through a comparative study of linguistic and architectural methodologies, the article demonstrates how synchronic linguistic concepts and methods can be applied to analyze Iranian architecture's structures, meanings, and spatial systems, contributing to developing a theoretical model for its study.

References:

A. Markus, T., & Cameron, D. (2002). The Words Between the Spaces: Buildings and Language. Routledge.
Abulazia, F., & Qezelbash, M.-R. (2007). Alphabet of the physical of the traditional house of Yazd. Gognyoos.
Agrest, D., & Gandelsonas, M. (1996). Semiotics and Architecture: Ideological Consumption Or Theoretical Work. In K. Nesbitt (Ed.), Theorizing a New Agenda for Architecture: An Anthology of Architectural Theory 1965 - 1995. Princeton Architectural Press.
Alavi-moghaddam, S. B. (2005). Contemporary dominant schools of linguistics. Roshd-e Amoozesh-e Zaban va Adab-e Farsi, 74.
Alexander, C. (1977). A Pattern Language: Towns, Buildings, Construction. Oxford University Press.
Ardebili, L. (2013). An overview of cognitive Linguistics. Ensan va Farhang, 2(3), 42–49.
Bagheri, M. (1995). Elements of Linguistics. Tabriz University.
Beheshti, S. M., Najafi, E., & Aboutorabian, B. (2023). Where is Iran, who is Iranian. Rowzaneh.
Benrós, D., Duarte, J. P., & Hanna, S. (2012). A new Palladian shape grammar: A subdivision grammar as alternative to the Palladian grammar. International Journal of Architectural Computing, 10(4), 521–540. https://doi.org/10.1260/1478-0771.10.4.521
Buelinckx, H. (1993). Wren's language of City church designs : a formal generative classification. Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design, 20, 645–676.
Çaǧdaş, G. (1996). A shape grammar: The language of traditional Turkish houses. Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design, 23(4), 443–464. https://doi.org/10.1068/b230443
Carter, T., & Cromley, E. C. (2005). Invitation to Vernacular Architecture: A Guide to the Study of Ordinary Buildings and Landscapes. Univ Tenese.
Chiou, S., & Krishnamurti, R. (1995a). The grammar of Taiwanese traditional vernacular dwellings. Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design, 22, 689–720.
Chiou, S., & Krishnamurti, R. (1995b). The grammatical basis of Chinese traditional architecture. Languages of Design, 3, 5–31.
Clarke, G., & Crossley, P. (2000). Architecture and Language: Constructing Identity in European Architecture, c.1000-c.1650. Cambridge University Press.
Curtis, W. J. R. (1996). Modern Architecture Since 1900. Phaidon Press.
Dabir-Moghaddam, M. (2007). The formation of theoretical linguistics in the world and its representation in Iran. Bokhara, 10(2), 97–125.
Dabir-Moghaddam, M. (2008). Theoretical Linguistics: emergence and development of generative grammar. Samt.
Donougho, M. (1987). The Language of Architecture. Aesthetic Education, 21(3), 53–67.
Downing, F., & Flemming, U. (1981). The Bungalows of Buffalo. Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design, 8(3), 269–293. https://doi.org/10.1068/b080269
Eco, U. (2005). Function and Sign: Semiotics of Architecture. In N. Leach (Ed.), Rethinking Architecture: A reader in cultural theory. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.7312/gott93206-004
Eisenman, P. (1982). House X. Rizzoli.
Fauziati, E. (2016). Systemic-functional linguistica and its implication in foreign language teaching. Prosiding Seminar Nasional Kajian Bahasa Dan Pengajarannya, 45–54.
Flemming, U. (1981). The secret of the Casa Giuliani Frigerio. Environment and Planning B, 8, 87–96.
Flemming, U. (1987). More than the sum of parts: the grammar of Queen Anne houses. Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design, 14(3), 323–350. https://doi.org/10.1068/b140323
Forty, A. (2000). Words and Buildings: A Vocabulary of Modern Architecture. Thames Hudson.
Gandelsonas, M. (1998). Linguistics in Architecture. In Architecture Theory Since 1968. The MIT Press.
Gharehbaglou, M., & Ashtiani, H. (2022). The Role of Mental Schemes in the Formation of Traditional Maragheh Housing Pattern. Architectural Thought, 6(12), 40–57.
Giedion, S. (2006). Space, Time and Architecture: The Growth of a New Tradition. Translated by Manochehr Mozayeni. Elmi-Farhangi.
Gips, J. (1975). James Gips: Shape Grammars and their Uses. Springer Basel AG.
Glassie, H. (2000). Vernacular Architecture (Material Culture). Indiana University Press.
Golijani Moqaddam, N. (2007). Historiology of Iranian Architecture. University of Tehran.
Ha’eri, M.-R. (2016). House in Culture & Nature of Iran: A Study of Architecture of Historic and Contemporary Houses to Compile the Process of House Design. Urban Planning & Architecture Research Center of Iran.
Halliday, M. A. K. (2005). On Grammar. Continuum.
Halliday, M. A. K., & Hasan, R. (1976). Cohesion in English (English Language Series). Longman.
Halliday, M. A. K., & Matthiessen, C. M. I. M. (2006). Construing Experience Through Meaning. Continuum.
Halliday, M. A. K., & Matthiessen, C. M. I. M. (2014). Halliday's Introduction to Functional Grammar. Routledge.
Hasani, K., & Nourouzborazjani, V. (2018). A Specification of a New Pattern of Shape Grammar in Architecture of Today's Houses; Case study: Qajar house. Bagh-e Nazar, 15(63), 29–40.
Hasani, K., Nourouzborazjani, V., & Nasir Salami, M. (2016). Re-read of Court's Form and Related Spaces with Shape Grammar Case Study: 100 Houses of Qajar Dynasty in Kashan City. Bagh-e Nazar, 13(44), 65–76.
Herdeg, K. (1991). Formal Structure in Islamic Architecture of Iran and Turkistan. Rizzoli.
Hosseini, S. A., & Bemanian, M. (2022). Grammar of Kashan's traditional Houses: Investigation of the formal structure and spatial relations of 19 historical houses of Kashan. Naqshejahan, 12(2), 1–20.
Hosseini, S. A., Fathi, S., Bemanian, M., & Mahdavinejad, M. (2025). Decoding Architectural Design Elements Through Shape Grammar (Typology of 64 traditional houses of Kashan, Yazd, and Isfahan). Bagh-e Nazar, 21(141), 5–14.
Jencks, C. (1977). The language of post-modern architecture. Rizzoli.
Koning, H., & Eizenberg, J. (1981). The language of the prairie: Frank Lloyd Wright's prairie houses. Environment and Planning B, 8, 295–323.
Kress, G., & Leeuwen, T. Van. (2021). Reading Images; The Grammar of Visual Design. Routledge.
Low, S. M., & Chambers, E. (1989). Housing, Culture, and Design: A Comparative Perspective. University of Pennsylvania Press.
Martinet, A. (1999). Elements of General Linguistics. Shahid Chamran University.
Me'marian, Q., & Edward Brown, F. (2003). Climate, Culture, and Religion: Aspects of the Traditional Courtyard House in Iran. Architectural and Planning Research, 20(3), 181–198.
Mohajer, M., & Nabavi, M. (2014). Towards the linguistics of poetry. Agah.
Mohit-tabatabai, M. (1971). Guarding the Persian language. Yaqmā, 23(10), 569–575.
Oliver, P. (1975). Shelter, Sign, and Symbol. Barrie & Jenkins.
Oliver, P. (2006). Built to Meet Needs: Cultural Issues in Vernacular Architecture. Taylor & Francis.
O'toole, M. (1994). The language of displayed art. Leicester University Press. https://doi.org/10.5860/choice.32-2527
O'toole, M. (2004). Opera Ludentes: The Sydney Opera House at Work and Play. In K. L. O'Halloran (Ed.), Multirnodal Discourse Analysis; Systemic-Functional Perspectives. Continuum.
Parry, J. R. (2017). Primal weaving: Structure and meaning in language and architecture. Sub-Stance, 46(3), 125–149. https://doi.org/10.3368/ss.46.3.125
Parsi, F. (2012). Design Method in Historical Persian Architecture [Ravesh-e Tarrahi dar Me'mari-e Tarikhi-e Iran]. Memar, 72(8), 70–76.
Patpong, P. (2009). Thai persuasive discourse: a systemic functional approach to an analysis of amulet advertisements. Revista Alicantina de Estudios Ingleses, 22, 195–217. https://doi.org/10.14198/raei.2009.22.13
Preziosi, D. (1979). Architecture, Language, and Meaning: The Origins of the Built World and its Semiotic Organization. De Gruyter Mouton.
Qayyoomi Bidhendi, M. (2005). Critical examination of the four architectural historiographies in Iran. Khial, 15, 4–37.
Qayyoomi Bidhendi, M. (2007). The Difficulties of Iranian Architecture History Studies and the Phenomenon of Seyyed Baqer Shirazi. Golestan_e_Honar, 3(2), 5–6. https://doi.org/http://golestanehonar.ir/article-1-106-fa.html
Rapoport, A. (1969). House, Form, and Culture. Pearson.
Rapoport, A. (1976). The Mutual Interaction of People and Their Built Enviromnent: A Cross Cultural Perspective. De Gruyter Mouton.
Rapoport, A. (2001). Theory, culture and housing. Housing, Theory and Society, 17(4), 145–165. https://doi.org/10.1080/140360900300108573
Rapoport, A. (2005). Culture, architecture, and design. Locke Science Publishing Company.
Rapoport, A. (2007). The Nature of the Courtyard House: A Conceptual Analysis. The International Association for the Study of Traditional Environments, 18(2), 57–72.
Rasekh-mahand, M. (2007). Fundamentals and Basic Concepts of Cognitive Linguistics. Bokhara, 10(2), 172–191.
Rasekh-mahand, M. (2013). An introduction to cognitive linguistics theories and concepts. Samt.
Rasekh-mahand, M. (2021). Schools of linguistics. Agah.
Remizova, O. (2016). The structure of the architectural language. Architectural Studies, 1(2), 81–86.
Safavi, K. (2012). Familiarity with Linguistics in Persian Literature Studies. Elmi.
Said, S., & Embi, M. R. (2008). A Parametric Shape Grammar of the Traditional Malay Long-Roof Type Houses. International Journal of Architectural Computing, 6(2), 121–144.
Shakouri, R., & Khodadadi, E. (2014). Scrutinizing the Nomadic Schema of Residence Case study: Qashqayi Nomads of Semirom. Bagh-e Nazar, 11(28), 3–14.
Sharifi, A. (2018). Context in functional linguistics and its applications in examples from classical Persian literature. Rokhsar-e Zaban, 2(6,7), 74–91.
Sharifian, F. (2017). Cultural Linguistics; Cultural conceptualisations and language. John Benjamins Publishing Company. http://benjamins.com/catalog/clscc
Sharifian, F., & Palmer, G. B. (2007). Applied Cultural Linguistics. John Benjamins Publishing Company.
Stiny, G. (1976). Two exercises in formal composition. Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design, 3(2), 187–210. https://doi.org/10.1068/b030187
Stiny, G., & Gips, J. (1971). Shape grammars and the generative specification of painting and sculpture. IFIP Congress 71. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-15347-6_301416
Stiny, G., & Gips, J. (1972). Shape grammars and the generative specification of painting and sculpture. Information Processing 71, 125–135.
Stiny, G., & Mitchell, W. J. (1980). The grammar of paradise : on the generation of Mughul gardens. Environment and Planning B, 7, 209–226.
Summerson, J. (1964). The classical language of architecture. The MIT Press.
Vorobiyov, V. V, Zakirova, E. S., Anyushenkova, O. N., Digtyar, O. Y., & Reva, A. R. (2020). Cultural linguistics and language for special purposes: cognitive, ethnolinguistic and linguocultural approaches. Espacios, 41(20), 270–278.
Zevi, B. (1978). The modern language of architecture. University of Washington Press.