Mycotoxins in Silages: Occurrence and Prevention

Subject Areas : Camel

Y. Acosta Aragon ¹ ( BIOMIN GmbH, Industriestrasse 21, 3130 Herzogenburg, Austria )
I. Rodrigues ² ( BIOMIN GmbH, Industriestrasse 21, 3130 Herzogenburg, Austria )
U. Hofstette ³ ( BIOMIN GmbH, Industriestrasse 21, 3130 Herzogenburg, Austria )
E.M. Binder ⁴ ( ERBER AG, Technopark 1, 3430 Tulln, Austria )

Received: 2010-10-20 Accepted : 2010-11-27 Published : 2011-03-01

Keywords: Impact, mycotoxins, Occurrence, prevention, silage,

Abstract :

Mycotoxins are an increasingly discussed topic. Several scientific reports have been written which review the effects of these toxic substances on the health and productivity of animals. However, there is a lack of work regarding the incidence of mycotoxins in ensiled material and the consequences of this occurrence. In this review, practical and field information was converged with scientific data with the objective of clarifying the subject. Nevertheless, due to the complexity of this topic, a straight line was adopted, starting with a brief explanation about mycotoxins followed by some practical prevention methods used on the field and during the ensiling process and, very importantly some analyses’ results made to silage from various origins and the impact of these contaminated materials in the animals ingesting them. An overview about how to avoid the negative impact of these poisonous substances is given as, for example, on the field (crop rotation, use of resistant plants, use of fertilizers, biological and chemical control of fungi and adequate plant maturation); in the silo (compaction, sheeting, storage length) and a correct management of the open silo (speed of progression in the silo, discard of deficiently preserved silage, additional use of silage additives for stopping the undesirable fermentations).

References:

Acosta Aragón Y, (2010). The contribution of silage inoculants in the disease prevention. 14^th.International Conference on Production Diseases in Farm Animals, Gent, Belgium.ISBN: 978-5864-226-4, 122-124.
AcostaAragón Y. and Rodrigues I. (2009).Contaminación de ensilados con micotoxinas. Proceedings of the XIV^th Latin American Congress of Buiatrics 2009, Lima, Peru: 12-15.
Acosta Aragón Y., Rodrigues I.and Pedrosa K. (2010).Mycotoxin contamination in silage and straw. IX International Conference Mycotoxins and Moulds, Bydgoscz, Poland, June 2010, 52.
Acosta Aragón Y., Starkl V. and Fernandez L. (2010). Micotoxinas en ensilados: un problema latente.Revista El Tambo, Uruguay, 2010.
AddlerA. (1993). Untersuchungen zur mikrobiellen Qualität von Silagen. In: BAL-Bericht über die österreichwiete Silagetagung vom 13. –14. Januar 1993. Bundesanstalt für alpenländische Landwirtschaft, Gumpenstein, Austria,45-53.
Amend R. (1990). Anhäufung der Mykotoxine Patulin, Penicillinsäure, PR-Toxin and Mycophenolsäure durch Penicillien auf Maissilage und halbsyntetischem Medium. PhD Thesis. University of Hohenheim, Germany.
Auerbach H. (1996). Verfahrensgrundlagen zur Senkung des Risikos eines Befalls von Silagen mit Penicillium roqueforti und einer Kontamination mit Mykotoxinen dieses Schimm-elpilzes. Landbauforschung Völkenrode. Sonderheft. 168, 1-167.
Auerbach H., Maas R.F.M., Op Den Camp H.J.M., Pol A. and Fink-Gremmels J. (1998). Biodegradation of aflatoxin B1 by bovine rumen microorganisms in vitro and its effects on rumen fermentation. Rev. Méd. Vét. 149,573.
Auerbach H., Oldenburg E. and Weissbach F. (1998). Incidence of Penicillium roqueforti and roquefortine C in silages. J. Sci. Food. Agric. 76, 565-572.
Bauer J. (2002). Mycotoxins in feedstuffs for ruminants: biochemical effects and clinical relevance. In: Proceedings of the XXII World Buiatrics Congress (Kaske M, Scholz H and Hölterschinken eds. Hildersheimer Druck-und VerlagsGmbH, Hilderheim, Germany,168-180.
Clevström G., Möller T., Görranson B., Liljenslöö A. and Ljunggren H. (1989). Influence of formic acid on fungal floraof barley and on aflatoxin production in Aspergillus flavus. Mycopathol. 107, 101-109.
Cook W.O., Richard J.L., Osweiller G.D. and Trampel D.W. (1986). Clinical and pathologic changes in acute bovine aflatoxicosis: rumen motility and tissue and fluid concentrations of aflatoxins B1 and M1. Am. J. Vet. Res. 47, 1817-1825.
Coppock R.W. and Jacobsen B.J. (2009). Mycotoxins in animal and human patients. Toxicol. Ind. health. 25, 637-655.
Danner H., Holzer M., Mayrhuber E. and Braun R. (2003). Acetic acid increases stability of silage under aerobic conditions. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 69, 562-567.
Diaz D.E., Hopkins B.A., Leonard L.M., Hagler W.M. and Whitlow L.W. (2000). Effect of Fumonisin on lactating dairy cattle. J. Dairy. Sci. 83, 1171.
Dieckman M.A. and Green M.L. (1992). Mycotoxins and reproduction in domestic livestock. J. Anim. Sci. 70, 1615-1627.
Dill-Macky R. and Jones R.K. (2000). The effect of previous crop residues and tillage on Fusarium head blight of wheat. Plant Dis. 84, 71-76.
Driehuis F., Oude Elferink S.J.W.H. and Van Wikselaar P.G. (2001). Fermentation characteristics and aerobic stability of grass silage inoculated with Lactobacillus buchneri, with or without homofermentative lactic acid bacteria. Grass Forage Sci. 56, 330-341.
Edwards S.G. (2004). Influence of agricultural practices on Fusarium infection of cereals and subsequent contamination of grain by trichothecene mycotoxins. Toxicol. Letters. 153, 29-35.
European Commission. (2003). Commission Directive 2003/100/EC of 31 October 2003 amending Annex 1 to Directive 2002/32/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council on undesirable substances in animal feed. Official J. EU L. 285, 33-37.
European Commission. (2006). Commission Regulation (EC) No 1881/2006 of 19 December 2006 setting maximum levels for certain contaminants in foodstuffs. Official J. EUL. 364, 5-24.
Fink-Gremmels J. (2008). The role of mycotoxins in the health and performance of dairy cows. Vet. J. 176, 84-92.
Froetschel M.A., Croom Jr W.J., Hagler Jr W.M., Argenzio R.A., Liacos J.A. and Broquist H.P. (1987). Effects of slaframine on ruminant digestive function: liquid turnover rate and fermentation patters in sheep and cattle. J. Anim. Sci. 64, 1241-1248.
Froetschel M.A., Croom Jr W.J., Hagler Jr W.M., Argenzio R.A., Liacos J.A. and Broquist H.P. (1986). Effects of slaframine on ruminant digestive function: ruminal motility in sheep and cattle. J. Anim. Sci. 63, 1502-1508.
Gratz S. and Täubel M. (2007). Aflatoxin Binding by Probiotics-Experimental Studies on Intestinal Aflatoxin Transport, Metabolism and Toxicity. Kuopion Yliopisto, Finnland, Doctoral dissertation.
Hoehler D. and Marquardt R.R. (1996). Influence of vitamins E and C on the toxic effects of ochratoxin A and T-2 toxin in chicks. Poult. Sci. 75, 1508-1515.
Hussein H.S. and Brasel J.M. (2001). Toxicity, metabolism, and impact of mycotoxins on human and animals. Toxicology. 167, 101-134.
IARC. (2002). Some traditional Herbal medicines, Some Mycotoxins, Naphtalene and Styrene. Summary of data reported and evaluation. IARC Monographs on the evaluation of the Carcinogenic Risk to Humans. Vol. 82. International Agency Res Cancer, Lyon, France.
Jones R.K., Duncan H.E. and Hamilton P.B. (1981). Planting date, harvest date, irrigation effects on infection and aflatoxin production by Aspergillus flavus in field corn. Phytopathology. 71, 810-816.
Jouany J.P. (2007). Methods for preventing, decontaminating and minimizing the toxicity of mycotoxins in feeds. Anim. Feed. Sci. Technol. 137, 342-362.
Kalac P. and Woodford M.K. (1982). A review of some aspects of possible associations between the feeding of silage and animal health. Br. Vet. J. 138-305.
Kleinmans J. (1996). Einfluss von Verdichtung und Luftzutritt auf Hefenkeimzahl und die aerobe Stabilität. Cited by Thaysen (2006) in: Mykotoxine und deren Vermeidung in Silage, Heu und Futtergetreide. Praxishandbuch Futter-konservierung. Silagebereitung, Siliermittel, Dosiergeräte, Silofolien. 7. Auflage, 2006, 51-65.
Kuldau G.A. (2008). Managing mycotoxins in Northeast silages. Available at: http://www.das.psu.edu/dairynutr-ition/docum-ents/kuldau.pdf [Accessed 5 August 2008].
Lepom P., Baath H. and Knabe O. (1988). Occurrence of Fusarium species and their mycotoxins in maize 3. The influence of ilaging on the zearalenone content of CCM maize. Arch. Anim. Nutr. 38, 817-823.
Losand B. (2003). Maissilagequalitäten in der Milchkuhhaltung. MAIS, Nr. 1, 31. Jahrgang,16-18.
Lück E. (1985). Chemische Lebensmittelkonservierung. Stoffe, Wirkungen, Methoden, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Germany.
Muck R.E. and Bolsen K.K. (1991). Silage preservation and silage additive products. In: Field guide for hay and silage management in North America (Bolsen K.K., Baylor J.E. and McCullough M.E., Eds). National Feed Engineering Service, Ithaca, New York, 187-199.
Nußbaum H.J. (2005). Kein Schema für Siliermittel. Tierhaltung DLZ. 2, 106-109.
Nußbaum H.J. (2006). Umgang mit nicht optimal konservierten Silagen. Praxishandbuch Futterkonservierung. Silageber-eitung, Siliermittel, Dosiergeräte, Silofolien. 7, 83-86.
Obremski K., Zielonka Ł., Gajęcka M., Jakimiuk E. and Gajęcki M. (2009). Mycotoxins-dairy cattle breeding problem. A case report. Bull. Vet. Inst. Pulawy. 53, 221-224.
Obst A., Lepschy-von Gleissenthall J. and Beck R. (1997). On the etiology of Fusarium head blight of wheat in South Germany-Preceding crops, weather conditions for inoculum production and head infection, proneness of the crop to infection and mycotoxin production. Cereal Res Community. 25, 699-703.
Oldenburg E. (2006). Was soll untersucht und bewertet werden? Die mikrobiologische und Toxikologische Produ-ktionskontrolle. Sächsischer Futtertag 2006. Available at: (http://w-ww.smul.sachsen.de/de/wu/Landw-irtschaft/lfl/i-nhalt/download/Oldenburg_29_03_2006.pdf[Accessed 15 March 2007]).
Ominski K.H., Marquardt R.R., Sinha R.N. and Abramson D. (1994). Ecological aspects of growth and mycotoxin-production by storage fungi. In: Mycotoxin in grain: compounds other than aflatoxins (Miller J.D. and Trenholm E-ds). Egan Press St Paul MN, USA, 287-314.
Oswald I.P. and Comera C. (1998). Immunotoxicity of mycotoxins. Rev. Med. Vet. 149, 585-590.
Özsoy S., Altunatmaz K., Horoz H., Kasikci G., Alkan S. and Bilal T. (2004). The Relationship beetwen Lameness, Fertility and Aflatoxin in a Dairy Cattle Herd. Turkish. J. Vet. Anim. Sci. 29, 981-986.
Pelhate J. (1977). Maize silage: incidence of moulds during conservation. Folia Vet. Lat. 7, 1-16.
Ramakrishna N., Lacey J. and Smith J.E. (1993). Effects of water activity and temperature on the growth of fungi interacting on barley grain. Mycol. Res. 97, 1393-1402.
Richard J.L. and Payne G.A. (Eds.) (2003). Mycotoxins: risks in plant, animal, and human systems Council for Agricultural Science and Technology Task Force report No. 139, Ames, Iowa, USA.
Richter W. (2006). Mykotoxine und deren Vermeidung in Silage, Heu und Futtergetreide. Praxishandbuch Futterk-onservierung. Silagebereitung, Siliermittel, Dosiergeräte, Silofolien. 7, 21-34.
Richter W. (2008). Precautions to avoid mycotoxins in silages and other forage. Proceedings fo the 13^th ICFC, 2008 Plenary papers, 34-39.
Richter W. and Bauer J. (2007). Schimmelpilze in Heu und Silage. Allgäuer Bauernblatt 35, 20-22. Cited by Richter W. (2008): Precautions to avoid mycotoxins in silages and other forage. Proceedings fo the 13^th ICFC, 2008 Plenary papers,34-39.
Richter W., Schuster M., Tischner H., Zimmermann G., Doleschel P., Beck R., Lepschy J., Steinhöfel O., Hörügel K., Hanschmann G., Heinze A., Jahn O., Hartung H., Müller G. and Thalmann A. (2005). Schimmelpilze und Mykotoxine in Futtermitteln. Vorkommen, Bewerten, Vermeiden. Available at: (http://www.lfl.bayern.de/ite/fut-terkonservie-rung/28806/index.php [Accessed 20.08.20-07]).
Riley R.T., Voss K.A., Norred W.P., Sharma R.P., Wang E. and Merrill Jr A.H. (1998). Fumonisins: mechanism of mycotoxicity. Rev. Med. Vet. 149, 617-626.
Rotter R.G., Marquardt R.R., Frohlich A.A. and Abramson D. (1990). Ensiling as a Means of Reducing Ochratoxin A Concentrations in Contaminated Barley. J. Sci. Food. Agric. 50, 155-166.
Scudamore K.A. and Livesey C.T. (1998). Occurrence and Significance of Mycotoxins in Forage Crops and Silage: a Review. J. Sci. Food. Agric. 77, 1-17.
Schatzmayr G., Zehner F., Schatzmayr D., Klimitsch A., Loibner A.P. and Binder E.M. (2006). Microbiologicals for deactivating mycotoxins. Mol. Nutr. Food. Res. 50, 543-551.
Schneweis I. (2000). Futterhygienische Untersuchungen von Silagen: Nachweis und Vorkommen von Monacolinen, Citrinin und Mycophenolsäure. Dissertation at the TU München.
Schrödter R. (2004). Influence of harvest and storage conditions on trichothecenes levels in various cereals. Toxicology Letters. 153, 47-49.
Shier W.T. (1998). Estrogenic mycotoxins. Rev. Med. Vet. 149, 599-604.
Skaar I. (1996). Mycological survey and characterization of the microbiota of big bale grass silage. PhD thesis, Norwegian College of Veterinary Medicine, Oslo, Norway.
Veldman A., Meijs J.A.C., Borggreve G.J. and Heeres v. d. Tol J.J. (1992) Carry-over of aflatoxin from cows' food to milk. Anim. Prod. 55, 163-168.
Veselý D., Veselá D. and Adamková A. (1981). Nález plísňe Penicillium roqueforti produkující PR- toxin v kukurícných silázích. Veterinární Medicina 8Prague. 26, 109-115.
Warfield C.Y. and Gilchrist D.G. (1999). Influence of kernel age on fumonisin B1 production in maize by Fusarium moniliforme. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 65, 2853-2856.
Weaver G.A., Kurtz H.J., Behrens J.C., Robison T.S., Seguin B.E., Bates F. and Mirocha C.J. (1986). Effect of zearalenone on dairy cows. Am. J. Vet. Res. 47, 1826-1828.
Weidenbörner M. (2001). Encyclopedia of Food Mycotoxins, Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
Whitlow L.W. and Hagler W.M. (2005). Mycotoxins in Dairy Cattle: Occurrence, Toxicity, Prevention and Treatment. Proceedings of Southwest Nutrition Conference,124-138.
Wilkinson J.M. (2005). Silage. Chalcome Publications. ISBN: 0 948617 50 0:190.
Woolford M. (1975). Microbiological screening of the straight chain fatty acids (C1-C12) as potential silage additive. J. Sci. Food. Agric. 26, 219-228.
Yiannikouris A. and Jouany J.P. (2002). Mycotoxins in feeds and their fate in animals: a review. Anim. Res. 51,81-99.